In May 1857, native elements of the British forces in India turned on their commanders in the first stages of a bloody rebellion that would be declared officially over only in July 1859. But the story of the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 is more than just a military adventure. Rather, it is the tale of a major turning point in the history of Britain's occupation of India and, for some, marks the beginning of the nationalist movement in that country.
There had been a British presence in India since the early 17th century but formal rule did not begin until after 1757 when Sir Robert Clive led a victory over the Nawab of Bengal and French forces at the Battle of Plassey. Clive was a representative of the East India Company and it was the Company rather than the British Crown that took charge. And this was the state of affairs in 1857.
The East India Company had virtually free rein. It was allowed to have its own armies (although some Crown forces were present) and was allowed to rule in its own way. This led to economic exploitation and local dissatisfaction with Company policies.
The situation was aggravated by the appointment of Lord Dalhousie as Governor-General in 1848. He had a vision of transforming India into a modern country with roads and railways and progressive laws, but he seemingly had little regard for local traditions. In his eight years in office, he was highly successful but it was these very policies that were to act as the catalyst for the events of 1857.
Economically, Indians were adversely affected by the exploitation of the East India Company. There was an influx of cheap British goods with which their own hand-made products could not compete leading to the financial ruin of artisans and craftsmen. And everyone was affected by a heavy tax burden.
Two policies aggravated the ruling classes in particular. The Doctrine of Lapse meant that only the natural descendants of the Indian ruling classes could assume their rank. Adopted children could retain the family wealth but not the role of ruler. There was also the Subsidiary Alliance. Rulers had to submit to an agreement to allow Company troops to be stationed on their territory and finance them. The Company was to be acknowledged as the supreme ruling power with any failure to pay certain dues would result in the forfeiture of land to the Company.
Social reform also led to suspicion and discontent. Hindus and Muslims alike were concerned that their faiths were being undermined by Christian missionaries and united against a common threat. The banning of sati, promotion of women's education and permission for widows to get married again all spawned resentment.
There was also seething discontent in parts of the army. Local troops were treated with contempt by many of their British counterparts. They were paid less and had limited promotion prospects. They were also barred from wearing caste and sectarian marks, which further fuelled resentment.
The stage was set for revolt. The spark proved to be the cartridge for the new Enfield rifle. It had a paper cover that needed to be bitten off before loading. Unfortunately, it was coated in grease made from pig and cow fat, which was offensive to Hindus and Muslims. Vegetable fat replaced the animal fat but it was too late.
In March 1857 a sepoy in the 34th Bengal Native Infantry by the name of Mangal Pandey refused to handle the cartridges and attacked his British officers. Breaking free from Indian soldiers who tried to restrain him, he shot himself. The wound was not fatal but he was quickly executed for his mutinous conduct.
In April, soldiers at Meerut also refused to use the cartridges. They were severely punished on 9 May but the next day their comrades revolted, releasing them from captivity and killing their British officers. A day later, they seized Delhi and proclaimed a reluctant former Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, as Emperor of India.
The British were slow to respond and the scene was set for bitter conflict across the north of India. There were atrocities on both sides, the most infamous being the butchering in very unclear circumstances of over a hundred captive British women and children at Cawnpore (modern Kanpur) by forces commanded by Nana Sahib, who had been dispossessed under the Doctrine of Lapse. The British were eventually able to regroup and with the help of loyal native forces and reinforcements from overseas were able to put down the mutiny. But the face of India was to be forever changed.
Victory for the British was at no time really in doubt. Only northern India felt the full force of the mutiny and, nationwide, the majority of Indian troops remained completely loyal. Furthermore, the rebels labored under a disjointed leadership and were hampered by infighting and conflicting ideas on their ultimate objectives.
With the return to peace, the British Government assumed control of India and severely curtailed the power of the East India Company. Regular British troops were stationed in the country with their ratio to native troops considerably increased. Subsidiary Alliance and the Doctrine of Lapse were effectively rescinded and freedom from interference in native religions was guaranteed.
The old principalities were eventually merged and Indians were given greater opportunities to contribute to the government of their country. There were improvements in communications and education and the country was slowly modernized. But the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 had one other major significance - it was the catalyst for Indian nationalism that was eventually to lead to independence ninety years later in 1947.
There had been a British presence in India since the early 17th century but formal rule did not begin until after 1757 when Sir Robert Clive led a victory over the Nawab of Bengal and French forces at the Battle of Plassey. Clive was a representative of the East India Company and it was the Company rather than the British Crown that took charge. And this was the state of affairs in 1857.
The East India Company had virtually free rein. It was allowed to have its own armies (although some Crown forces were present) and was allowed to rule in its own way. This led to economic exploitation and local dissatisfaction with Company policies.
The situation was aggravated by the appointment of Lord Dalhousie as Governor-General in 1848. He had a vision of transforming India into a modern country with roads and railways and progressive laws, but he seemingly had little regard for local traditions. In his eight years in office, he was highly successful but it was these very policies that were to act as the catalyst for the events of 1857.
Economically, Indians were adversely affected by the exploitation of the East India Company. There was an influx of cheap British goods with which their own hand-made products could not compete leading to the financial ruin of artisans and craftsmen. And everyone was affected by a heavy tax burden.
Two policies aggravated the ruling classes in particular. The Doctrine of Lapse meant that only the natural descendants of the Indian ruling classes could assume their rank. Adopted children could retain the family wealth but not the role of ruler. There was also the Subsidiary Alliance. Rulers had to submit to an agreement to allow Company troops to be stationed on their territory and finance them. The Company was to be acknowledged as the supreme ruling power with any failure to pay certain dues would result in the forfeiture of land to the Company.
Social reform also led to suspicion and discontent. Hindus and Muslims alike were concerned that their faiths were being undermined by Christian missionaries and united against a common threat. The banning of sati, promotion of women's education and permission for widows to get married again all spawned resentment.
There was also seething discontent in parts of the army. Local troops were treated with contempt by many of their British counterparts. They were paid less and had limited promotion prospects. They were also barred from wearing caste and sectarian marks, which further fuelled resentment.
The stage was set for revolt. The spark proved to be the cartridge for the new Enfield rifle. It had a paper cover that needed to be bitten off before loading. Unfortunately, it was coated in grease made from pig and cow fat, which was offensive to Hindus and Muslims. Vegetable fat replaced the animal fat but it was too late.
In March 1857 a sepoy in the 34th Bengal Native Infantry by the name of Mangal Pandey refused to handle the cartridges and attacked his British officers. Breaking free from Indian soldiers who tried to restrain him, he shot himself. The wound was not fatal but he was quickly executed for his mutinous conduct.
In April, soldiers at Meerut also refused to use the cartridges. They were severely punished on 9 May but the next day their comrades revolted, releasing them from captivity and killing their British officers. A day later, they seized Delhi and proclaimed a reluctant former Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, as Emperor of India.
The British were slow to respond and the scene was set for bitter conflict across the north of India. There were atrocities on both sides, the most infamous being the butchering in very unclear circumstances of over a hundred captive British women and children at Cawnpore (modern Kanpur) by forces commanded by Nana Sahib, who had been dispossessed under the Doctrine of Lapse. The British were eventually able to regroup and with the help of loyal native forces and reinforcements from overseas were able to put down the mutiny. But the face of India was to be forever changed.
Victory for the British was at no time really in doubt. Only northern India felt the full force of the mutiny and, nationwide, the majority of Indian troops remained completely loyal. Furthermore, the rebels labored under a disjointed leadership and were hampered by infighting and conflicting ideas on their ultimate objectives.
With the return to peace, the British Government assumed control of India and severely curtailed the power of the East India Company. Regular British troops were stationed in the country with their ratio to native troops considerably increased. Subsidiary Alliance and the Doctrine of Lapse were effectively rescinded and freedom from interference in native religions was guaranteed.
The old principalities were eventually merged and Indians were given greater opportunities to contribute to the government of their country. There were improvements in communications and education and the country was slowly modernized. But the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 had one other major significance - it was the catalyst for Indian nationalism that was eventually to lead to independence ninety years later in 1947.
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